Topical Atropine in the Control of Myopia
Medical hypothesis discovery and innovation in ophthalmology,
Vol. 5 No. 3 (2016),
1 September 2016
,
Page 78-88
Abstract
Atropine has been used for more than a century to arrest myopia progression. Compelling evidence of its protective effect has been reported in well-designed clinical studies, mainly performed during the last two decades. However, its exact mechanism of action has not been determined. Experimental findings have shown that the mechanism is not related to accommodation, as was thought for decades. A review of the published literature revealed a significant amount of evidence supporting its safety and efficacy at a concentration of 1.0%, and at lower concentrations (as low as 0.01%).References
Young TL. Molecular genetics of human myopia: an update. Optom Vis Sci. 2009;86(1):E8-E22. PMID: 19104467
Sherwin JC, Mackey DA. Update on the epidemiology and genetics of myopic refractive error. Expert Rev Ophthalmol. 2013;8(1):63-87.
Koh V, Yang A, Saw SM, Chan YH, Lin ST, Tan MM, et al. Differences in prevalence of refractive errors in young Asian males in Singapore between 1996-1997 and 2009-2010. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2014;21(4):247-55. PMID: 24990474
Jung SK, Lee JH, Kakizaki H, Jee D. Prevalence of myopia and its association with body stature and educational level in 19-year-old male conscripts in seoul, South Korea. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012;53(9):5579-83. PMID: 22836765
Liang YB, Lin Z, Vasudevan B, Jhanji V, Young A, Gao TY, et al. Generational difference of refractive error in the baseline study of the Beijing Myopia Progression Study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2013;97(6):765-9. PMID: 23590854
Lin Z, Gao TY, Vasudevan B, Jhanji V, Ciuffreda KJ, Zhang P, et al. Generational difference of refractive error and risk factors in the Handan Offspring Myopia Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2014;55(9):5711-7. PMID: 25097244
Morgan I, Rose K. How genetic is school myopia? Prog Retin Eye Res. 2005;24(1):1-38. PMID: 15555525
Bores LD. Refractive eye surgery. Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell; 2001.
Shah V, Wang N. Myopia: A Historical Perspective. In: Pathologic Myopia. New York: Springer; 2014.
Mark HH. Johannes Kepler on the eye and vision. Am J Ophthalmol. 1971;72(5):869-78. PMID: 4940979
Donders F. On the Anomalies of accommodation and refraction of the eye. London: The New Sydenham Society; 1864.
Cohn H. The Hygiene of the Eye in Schools. London: Simpkin, M; 1886.
Clap E. Report of Progress in Ophthalmology. Bost Med Surg J. 1918;178:56-9.
Parsons J. Diseases of the eye. 4th ed. New York, USA: The Macmillan company; 1923.
Zhao XY, Li W, Lv Z, Liu L, Tong M, Hai T, et al. Viable fertile mice generated from fully pluripotent iPS cells derived from adult somatic cells. Stem Cell Rev. 2010;6(3):390-7. PMID: 20549390
Goss DA. Attempts to reduce the rate of increase of myopia in young people--a critical literature review. Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1982;59(10):828-41. PMID: 7148977
Raviola E, Wiesel N. Neural control of eye growth and experimental myopia in primates. In: John Wiley and Sons, editor. Myopia Control Eye Growth. Chichester: CIBA Foundation Symposium; 1990. p. 30-1.
Stone RA, Lin T, Laties AM. Muscarinic antagonist effects on experimental chick myopia. Exp Eye Res. 1991;52(6):755-8. PMID: 1855549
McBrien NA, Moghaddam HO, New R, Williams LR. Experimental myopia in a diurnal mammal (Sciurus carolinensis) with no accommodative ability. J Physiol. 1993;469:427-41. PMID: 8271206
McBrien NA, Moghaddam HO, Reeder AP. Atropine reduces experimental myopia and eye enlargement via a nonaccommodative mechanism. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1993;34(1):205-15. PMID: 8425826
Mutti DO, Mitchell GL, Moeschberger ML, Jones LA, Zadnik K. Parental myopia, near work, school achievement, and children's refractive error. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2002;43(12):3633-40. PMID: 12454029
Zylbermann R, Landau D, Berson D. The influence of study habits on myopia in Jewish teenagers. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1993;30(5):319-22. PMID: 8254449
Wong L, Coggon D, Cruddas M, Hwang CH. Education, reading, and familial tendency as risk factors for myopia in Hong Kong fishermen. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1993;47(1):50-3. PMID: 8436895
Hepsen IF, Evereklioglu C, Bayramlar H. The effect of reading and near-work on the development of myopia in emmetropic boys: a prospective, controlled, three-year follow-up study. Vision Res. 2001;41(19):2511-20. PMID: 11483181
Saw SM, Carkeet A, Chia KS, Stone RA, Tan DT. Component dependent risk factors for ocular parameters in Singapore Chinese children. Ophthalmology. 2002;109(11):2065-71. PMID: 12414416
French AN, Morgan IG, Mitchell P, Rose KA. Risk factors for incident myopia in Australian schoolchildren: the Sydney adolescent vascular and eye study. Ophthalmology. 2013;120(10):2100-8. PMID: 23672971
Wu LJ, You QS, Duan JL, Luo YX, Liu LJ, Li X, et al. Prevalence and associated factors of myopia in high-school students in Beijing. PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0120764. PMID: 25803875
Li SM, Li SY, Kang MT, Zhou Y, Liu LR, Li H, et al. Near Work Related Parameters and Myopia in Chinese Children: the Anyang Childhood Eye Study. PLoS One. 2015;10(8):e0134514. PMID: 26244865
Ramamurthy D, Lin Chua SY, Saw SM. A review of environmental risk factors for myopia during early life, childhood and adolescence. Clin Exp Optom. 2015;98(6):497-506. PMID: 26497977
Ip JM, Saw SM, Rose KA, Morgan IG, Kifley A, Wang JJ, et al. Role of near work in myopia: findings in a sample of Australian school children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49(7):2903-10. PMID: 18579757
Scheiman M, Zhang Q, Gwiazda J, Hyman L, Harb E, Weissberg E, et al. Visual activity and its association with myopia stabilisation. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2014;34(3):353-61. PMID: 24345071
Huang HM, Chang DS, Wu PC. The Association between Near Work Activities and Myopia in Children-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(10):e0140419. PMID: 26485393
Mutti DO, Zadnik K. Has near work's star fallen? Optom Vis Sci. 2009;86(2):76-8. PMID: 19156003
Saw SM, Shankar A, Tan SB, Taylor H, Tan DT, Stone RA, et al. A cohort study of incident myopia in Singaporean children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47(5):1839-44. PMID: 16638989
Jones-Jordan LA, Sinnott LT, Cotter SA, Kleinstein RN, Manny RE, Mutti DO, et al. Time outdoors, visual activity, and myopia progression in juvenile-onset myopes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012;53(11):7169-75. PMID: 22977132
Jones-Jordan LA, Sinnott LT, Graham ND, Cotter SA, Kleinstein RN, Manny RE, et al. The contributions of near work and outdoor activity to the correlation between siblings in the Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Ethnicity and Refractive Error (CLEERE) Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2014;55(10):6333-9. PMID: 25205866
Zadnik K, Sinnott LT, Cotter SA, Jones-Jordan LA, Kleinstein RN, Manny RE, et al. Prediction of Juvenile-Onset Myopia. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2015;133(6):683-9. PMID: 25837970
Sorsby A. Emmetropia and its aberrations. Trans Opthal Soc U K. 1956;76:167-9. PMID: 13409537
Young TL, Metlapally R, Shay AE. Complex trait genetics of refractive error. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007;125(1):38-48. PMID: 17210850
Leo SW, Young TL. An evidence-based update on myopia and interventions to retard its progression. J AAPOS. 2011;15(2):181-9. PMID: 21596297
Lopes MC, Andrew T, Carbonaro F, Spector TD, Hammond CJ. Estimating heritability and shared environmental effects for refractive error in twin and family studies. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2009;50(1):126-31. PMID: 18757506
Guggenheim JA, St Pourcain B, McMahon G, Timpson NJ, Evans DM, Williams C. Assumption-free estimation of the genetic contribution to refractive error across childhood. Mol Vis. 2015;21:621-32. PMID: 26019481
Xiang F, He M, Morgan IG. The impact of parental myopia on myopia in Chinese children: population-based evidence. Optom Vis Sci. 2012;89(10):1487-96. PMID: 22922777
Sorsby A. The Control of School Myopia. Br Med J. 1933;2(3798):730-3. PMID: 20777837
Sorsby A, Benjamin B. Modes of inheritance of errors of refraction. J Med Genet. 1973;10(2):161-4. PMID: 4714583
Ask F. Frequency of school-myopia in Sweden. Acta Ophthalmol. 1925;3:108-20.
Kiefer AK, Tung JY, Do CB, Hinds DA, Mountain JL, Francke U, et al. Genome-wide analysis points to roles for extracellular matrix remodeling, the visual cycle, and neuronal development in myopia. PLoS Genet. 2013;9(2):e1003299. PMID: 23468642
Verhoeven VJ, Hysi PG, Wojciechowski R, Fan Q, Guggenheim JA, Hohn R, et al. Genome-wide meta-analyses of multiancestry cohorts identify multiple new susceptibility loci for refractive error and myopia. Nat Genet. 2013;45(3):314-8. PMID: 23396134
Jones LA, Sinnott LT, Mutti DO, Mitchell GL, Moeschberger ML, Zadnik K. Parental history of myopia, sports and outdoor activities, and future myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007;48(8):3524-32. PMID: 17652719
Low W, Dirani M, Gazzard G, Chan YH, Zhou HJ, Selvaraj P, et al. Family history, near work, outdoor activity, and myopia in Singapore Chinese preschool children. British J Ophthalmol. 2010;94(8):1012-6.
Wojciechowski R. Nature and nurture: the complex genetics of myopia and refractive error. Clin Genet. 2011;79(4):301-20. PMID: 21155761
Jones-Jordan LA, Sinnott LT, Manny RE, Cotter SA, Kleinstein RN, Mutti DO, et al. Early childhood refractive error and parental history of myopia as predictors of myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010;51(1):115-21. PMID: 19737876
Gifford P, Gifford KL. The Future of Myopia Control Contact Lenses. Optom Vis Sci. 2016;93(4):336-43. PMID: 26636396
Wu MM, Edwards MH. The effect of having myopic parents: an analysis of myopia in three generations. Optom Vis Sci. 1999;76(6):387-92. PMID: 10416933
Jones LA, Sinnott L, Mitchell GL, Mutti D, Moeschberger M, Zadnik K. How Well Do Parental History and Near Work Predict Myopia? Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47(13):5452-.
Chua SY, Ikram MK, Tan CS, Lee YS, Ni Y, Shirong C, et al. Relative Contribution of Risk Factors for Early-Onset Myopia in Young Asian Children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2015;56(13):8101-7. PMID: 26720462
Quek TP, Chua CG, Chong CS, Chong JH, Hey HW, Lee J, et al. Prevalence of refractive errors in teenage high school students in Singapore. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2004;24(1):47-55. PMID: 14687201
Wiesel TN, Raviola E. Myopia and eye enlargement after neonatal lid fusion in monkeys. Nature. 1977;266(5597):66-8. PMID: 402582
Wallman J, Turkel J, Trachtman J. Extreme myopia produced by modest change in early visual experience. Science. 1978 Sep 29;201(4362):1249-51. PMID: 694514
Mutti DO, Gwiazda J, Norton TT, Smith EL, 3rd, Schaeffel F, To CH. Myopia--yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Optom Vis Sci. 2013;90(11):1161-4. PMID: 24152883
Hysi PG, Wojciechowski R, Rahi JS, Hammond CJ. Genome-wide association studies of refractive error and myopia, lessons learned, and implications for the future. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2014;55(5):3344-51. PMID: 24876304
Tkatchenko AV, Tkatchenko TV, Guggenheim JA, Verhoeven VJ, Hysi PG, Wojciechowski R, et al. APLP2 Regulates Refractive Error and Myopia Development in Mice and Humans. PLoS Genet. 2015;11(8):e1005432. PMID: 26313004
Chen YP, Hocking PM, Wang L, Povazay B, Prashar A, To CH, et al. Selective breeding for susceptibility to myopia reveals a gene-environment interaction. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011;52(7):4003-11. PMID: 21436268
Guggenheim JA. Genetic susceptibility to myopia induced by the visual environment. ARVO. 2015.
Hysi PG, Mahroo OA, Cumberland P, Wojciechowski R, Williams KM, Young TL, et al. Common mechanisms underlying refractive error identified in functional analysis of gene lists from genome-wide association study results in 2 European British cohorts. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2014;132(1):50-6. PMID: 24264139
Mutti DO, Zadnik K, Adams AJ. Myopia. The nature versus nurture debate goes on. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1996;37(6):952-7. PMID: 8631638
Lin LL, Chen CJ, Hung PT, Ko LS. Nation-wide survey of myopia among schoolchildren in Taiwan, 1986. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1988;185:29-33. PMID: 2853535
Lin LL, Hung PT, Ko LS, Hou PK. Study of myopia among aboriginal school children in Taiwan. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1988;185:34-6. PMID: 2853536
Chang S, Shih Y, Lin L. A review of myopia studies in Taiwan. In: Lin L, Shih Y, Hung PT, editors. Myopia Updat. II, Tokyo: Springer Japan; 2000, p. 133–8.
Au Eong KG, Tay TH, Lim MK. Race, culture and Myopia in 110,236 young Singaporean males. Singapore Med J. 1993;34(1):29-32. PMID: 8266124
Liang YB, Wong TY, Sun LP, Tao QS, Wang JJ, Yang XH, et al. Refractive errors in a rural Chinese adult population the Handan eye study. Ophthalmology. 2009;116(11):2119-27. PMID: 19744728
Li Z, Sun D, Cuj H, Zhang L, Lju P, Yang H, et al. Refractive error among the elderly in rural Southern Harbin, China. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2009;16(6):388-94. PMID: 19995204
Pan CW, Chen Q, Sheng X, Li J, Niu Z, Zhou H, et al. Ethnic variations in myopia and ocular biometry among adults in a rural community in China: the Yunnan minority eye studies. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2015;56(5):3235-41. PMID: 26024108
Morgan IG, Rose K. Yunnan Minority Eye Study Suggests That Ethnic Differences in Myopia Are Due to Different Environmental Exposures. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2015;56(8):4430. PMID: 26200486
Saxena R, Vashist P, Tandon R, Pandey RM, Bhardawaj A, Menon V, et al. Prevalence of myopia and its risk factors in urban school children in Delhi: the North India Myopia Study (NIM Study). PLoS One. 2015;10(2):e0117349. PMID: 25719391
Hornbeak DM, Young TL. Myopia genetics: a review of current research and emerging trends. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2009;20(5):356-62. PMID: 19587595
Tang WC, Yap MK, Yip SP. A review of current approaches to identifying human genes involved in myopia. Clin Exp Optom. 2008;91(1):4-22. PMID: 18045248
Hawthorne FA, Young TL. Genetic contributions to myopic refractive error: Insights from human studies and supporting evidence from animal models. Exp Eye Res. 2013;114:141-9. PMID: 23379998
Zhang Q. Genetics of Refraction and Myopia. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2015;134:269-79. PMID: 26310160
Stevens R. Belladonna, in Various Diseases. Bost Med Surg J. 1844;30:501-2.
Roupell G. Suggestions For A More Simple Arrangement Of The Materia Medica Based On Its Pharmaceutical And Therapeutical Relations. Med Time. 1847;409:443.
Jones T. Defects of Sight: Their Nature, Causes, Prevention, and General Management. London. 1856.
Pollock WBI. The reduction of myopia in children of school age. Glasgow Med J. 1916;86:214–9.
Hallett DW. The prevention of myopia. Am J Ophthalmol. 1931;14(2):143-6.
Lancaster WB. Refraction and motility. Charles C. Thomas1952. 149 p.
Bedrossian RH. The effect of atropine on myopia. Ann Ophthalmol. 1971;3(8):891-7. PMID: 5163783
Bedrossian RH. The effect of atropine on myopia. Ophthalmology. 1979;86(5):713-9. PMID: 545205
Kelly TS, Chatfield C, Tustin G. Clinical assessment of the arrest of myopia. Br J Ophthalmol. 1975;59(10):529-38. PMID: 1191610
Luedde WH. Monocular cycloplegia for the control of myopia. Am J Ophthalmol. 1932;15(7):603-10.
Young FA. The Effect of Atropine on the Development of Myopia in Monkeys. Am J Optom Arch Am Acad Optom. 1965;42:439-49. PMID: 14330575
Dyer JA. Role of cyclopegics in progressive myopia. Ophthalmology. 1979;86(5):692-4. PMID: 545201
Sampson WG. Role of cycloplegia in the management of functional myopia. Ophthalmology. 1979;86(5):695-7. PMID: 545202
Brodstein RS, Brodstein DE, Olson RJ, Hunt SC, Williams RR. The Treatment of Myopia with Atropine and Bifocals. Ophthalmology. 1984;91(11):1373-9. PMID: 6514306
Kao SC, Lu HY, Liu JH. Atropine effect on school myopia. A preliminary report. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1988;185:132-3. PMID: 2853519
Kennedy RH. Progression of myopia. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1995;93:755-800. PMID: 8719698
Yen MY, Liu JH, Kao SC, Shiao CH. Comparison of the effect of atropine and cyclopentolate on myopia. Ann Ophthalmol. 1989;21(5):180-2, 7. PMID: 2742290
Gostin S. Prophylactic management of myopia. New York, USA: Myopia; 1964.
Brodstein RS. The treatment of myopia with atropine and bifocals. A long-term prospective study. Ophthalmology. 1985;92:716.
Rubin ML, Milder B. Myopia--a treatable "disease"? Surv Ophthalmol. 1976;21(1):65-9. PMID: 959999
Wilson DR, Keeney AH. Corrective measures for myopia. Surv Ophthalmol. 1990;34(4):294-304. PMID: 2188389
Safir A. Discussion of Presentation by Dr Robert H. Bedrossian. Ophthalmol. 1979;86(5):718-9.
Shih YF, Chen CH, Chou AC, Ho TC, Lin LL, Hung PT. Effects of different concentrations of atropine on controlling myopia in myopic children. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 1999;15(1):85-90. PMID: 10048351
Shih YF, Hsiao CK, Chen CJ, Chang CW, Hung PT, Lin LL. An intervention trial on efficacy of atropine and multi-focal glasses in controlling myopic progression. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2001;79(3):233-6. PMID: 11401629
Chua WH, Balakrishnan V, Chan YH, Tong L, Ling Y, Quah BL. Atropine for the Treatment of Childhood Myopi. Ophthalmol. 2006;113:228-91.
Kumaran A, Htoon HM, Tan D, Chia A. Analysis of Changes in Refraction and Biometry of Atropine- and Placebo-Treated Eyes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2015;56(9):5650-5. PMID: 26313301
Chou AC, Shih YF, Ho TC, Lin LL. The effectiveness of 0.5% atropine in controlling high myopia in children. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 1997;13(1):61-7. PMID: 9029440
Wu PC, Yang YH, Fang PC. The long-term results of using low-concentration atropine eye drops for controlling myopia progression in schoolchildren. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2011;27(5):461-6. PMID: 21815829
Chia A, Chua WH, Cheung YB, Wong WL, Lingham A, Fong A, et al. Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia: safety and efficacy of 0.5%, 0.1%, and 0.01% doses (Atropine for the Treatment of Myopia 2). Ophthalmol. 2012;119(2):347-54. PMID: 21963266
Chia A, Chua WH, Wen L, Fong A, Goon YY, Tan D. Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia: changes after stopping atropine 0.01%, 0.1% and 0.5%. Am J Ophthalmol. 2014;157(2):451-7 e1. PMID: 24315293
Loh KL, Lu Q, Tan D, Chia A. Risk factors for progressive myopia in the atropine therapy for myopia study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2015;159(5):945-9. PMID: 25640408
Chia A, Lu QS, Tan D. Five-Year Clinical Trial on Atropine for the Treatment of Myopia 2: Myopia Control with Atropine 0.01% Eyedrops. Ophthalmology. 2016;123(2):391-9. PMID: 26271839
Galvis V, Tello A, Parra MM, Rodriguez CJ, Blanco O, Chia A. Five-year clinical trial on atropine for the treatment of myopia 2: myopia control with atropine 0.01% eyedrops. Ophthalmol. 2016;123(2):391-9.
Galvis V, Tello A, Rodriguez CJ, Rey JJ. Atropine dose to treat myopia. Ophthalmol. 2012;119(8):1718.
Polling JR, Kok RGW, Tideman JWL, Meskat B, Klaver CCW. Effectiveness study of atropine for progressive myopia in Europeans. Eye. 2016.
Walline JJ, Lindsley K, Vedula SS, Cotter SA, Mutti DO, Twelker JD. Interventions to slow progression of myopia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011(12):CD004916. PMID: 22161388
Song YY, Wang H, Wang BS, Qi H, Rong ZX, Chen HZ. Atropine in ameliorating the progression of myopia in children with mild to moderate myopia: a meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2011;27(4):361-8. PMID: 21649523
Li SM, Wu SS, Kang MT, Liu Y, Jia SM, Li SY, et al. Atropine slows myopia progression more in Asian than white children by meta-analysis. Optom Vis Sci. 2014;91(3):342-50. PMID: 24445721
Huang J, Wen D, Wang Q, McAlinden C, Flitcroft I, Chen H, et al. Efficacy Comparison of 16 Interventions for Myopia Control in Children: A Network Meta-analysis. Ophthalmology. 2016;123(4):697-708. PMID: 26826749
Cooper J, Eisenberg N, Schulman E, Wang FM. Maximum atropine dose without clinical signs or symptoms. Optom Vis Sci. 2013;90(12):1467-72. PMID: 24076540
Nishiyama Y, Moriyama M, Fukamachi M, Uchida A, Miyaushiro H, Kurata A, et al. [Side Effects of Low Dose Atropine]. Nippon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 2015;119(11):812-6. PMID: 26685486
Loughman J, Flitcroft DI. The acceptability and visual impact of 0.01% atropine in a Caucasian population. British J Ophthalmol. 2016:bjophthalmol-2015-307861.
Clark TY, Clark RA. Atropine 0.01% Eyedrops Significantly Reduce the Progression of Childhood Myopia. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2015;31(9):541-5. PMID: 26218150
Fang PC, Chung MY, Yu HJ, Wu PC. Prevention of myopia onset with 0.025% atropine in premyopic children. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2010;26(4):341-5. PMID: 20698798
Smith MJ, Walline JJ. Controlling myopia progression in children and adolescents. Adolesc Health Med Ther. 2015;6:133-40. PMID: 26316834
Fang YT, Chou YJ, Pu C, Lin PJ, Liu TL, Huang N, et al. Prescription of atropine eye drops among children diagnosed with myopia in Taiwan from 2000 to 2007: a nationwide study. Eye (Lond). 2013;27(3):418-24. PMID: 23288141
Warner N. Update on myopia. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2016;27(5):402-6. PMID: 27228418
- Abstract Viewed: 1944 times
- PDF Downloaded: 1794 times