Pattern of ocular injury in pediatric patients visiting a tertiary eye hospital in Eastern Nepal
Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry,
Vol. 6 No. 4 (2025),
30 January 2026
,
Page 166-173
https://doi.org/10.51329/mehdioptometry236
Abstract
Background: Pediatric ocular trauma is a leading cause of preventable visual morbidity and monocular blindness worldwide. The epidemiology and clinical patterns of ocular injuries vary across regions due to differences in environmental exposure, socioeconomic factors, and supervision practices. Understanding local injury patterns is essential to informing targeted prevention strategies and optimizing clinical management.Methods: A hospital-based cross-sectional observational study was conducted at Biratnagar Eye Hospital, a tertiary eye care center in Eastern Nepal, between April and September 2023. Pediatric patients younger than 16 years presenting for the first time with ocular trauma were consecutively enrolled. Data on demographic characteristics, educational status, causative agents, place and anatomical zone of injury, clinical diagnosis, and management approach were collected using a structured proforma. Injuries were categorized based on anatomical zones, and management was classified as medical, surgical, or observational. Results were summarized using descriptive statistics.
Results: A total of 260 children were included, 184 (70.8%) of whom were male. The highest incidence of ocular trauma was observed in children aged 6–10 years (n = 115, 44.2%). Stick- or wood-related injuries were the most common cause (n = 85, 32.7%), followed by injuries from iron or other sharp objects (n = 45, 17.3%). The majority of injuries occurred at home (n = 170, 65.4%). Open globe injuries constituted the most frequent diagnosis (n = 101, 38.8%), while Zone I injuries accounted for 96.9% (n = 252) of cases, indicating predominant anterior segment involvement. Medical management alone was sufficient in 58.0% (n = 150) of patients, whereas 40.0% (n = 104) required surgical intervention.
Conclusions: Pediatric ocular trauma in Eastern Nepal predominantly affects school-aged boys and frequently occurs in the home environment due to largely preventable causes. The substantial burden of open globe and anterior segment injuries highlights the need for strengthened injury prevention strategies, enhanced parental supervision, and timely access to specialized ophthalmic care. Targeted community education and coordinated trauma management approaches may help reduce the incidence and visual consequences of pediatric ocular injuries.
Keywords:
- children
- trauma
- corneal trauma
- prognoses
- eyes
- eye injury
- home accidents
- boys
- girls
References
1. Alabdulkader B, Alsiwat Y, Almatar H, Albdah B, Almustanyir A, Almutleb E, Alkanhal N, Almazroa A. Prevalence, Characteristics, and Management of Pediatric Ocular Trauma in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: A Retrospective Analysis. Healthcare (Basel). 2024 Aug 22;12(16):1673. doi: 10.3390/healthcare12161673. PMID: 39201231; PMCID: PMC11353789.
2. Kaçer EÖ, Kaçer ?. Ocular trauma in the pediatric age group: a systematic review. Egyptian Pediatric Association Gazette. 2022 Dec 5;70(1):28. doi:10.1186/s43054-022-00125-y.
3. GBD 2019 Blindness and Vision Impairment Collaborators; Vision Loss Expert Group of the Global Burden of Disease Study. Trends in prevalence of blindness and distance and near vision impairment over 30 years: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet Glob Health. 2021 Feb;9(2):e130-e143. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30425-3. Epub 2020 Dec 1. PMID: 33275950; PMCID: PMC7820390.
4. Qayum S, Anjum R, Rather S. Epidemiological profile of pediatric ocular trauma in a tertiary hospital of northern India. Chin J Traumatol. 2018 Apr;21(2):100-103. doi: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2017.11.005. Epub 2018 Mar 3. Erratum in: Chin J Traumatol. 2025 Sep;28(5):390. doi: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2020.12.006. PMID: 29605433; PMCID: PMC5911735.
5. GBD 2019 Blindness and Vision Impairment Collaborators; Vision Loss Expert Group of the Global Burden of Disease Study. Causes of blindness and vision impairment in 2020 and trends over 30 years, and prevalence of avoidable blindness in relation to VISION 2020: the Right to Sight: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet Glob Health. 2021 Feb;9(2):e144-e160. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30489-7. Epub 2020 Dec 1. Erratum in: Lancet Glob Health. 2021 Apr;9(4):e408. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00050-4. PMID: 33275949; PMCID: PMC7820391.
6. Saxena R, Sinha R, Purohit A, Dada T, Vajpayee RB, Azad RV. Pattern of pediatric ocular trauma in India. Indian J Pediatr. 2002 Oct;69(10):863-7. doi: 10.1007/BF02723708. PMID: 12450295.
7. Parija S, Chakraborty K, Ravikumar SR, Dhall S. A study on the clinical profile and visual outcome of pediatric ocular trauma in Eastern India. Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2023 Jun 26;37(2):111–119. doi: 10.4103/sjopt.sjopt_61_22. PMID: 37492202; PMCID: PMC10365246.
8. Madan AH, Joshi RS, Wadekar PD. Ocular Trauma in Pediatric Age Group at a Tertiary Eye Care Center in Central Maharashtra, India. Clin Ophthalmol. 2020 Apr 1;14:1003-1009. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S244679. PMID: 32280195; PMCID: PMC7132001.
9. Dulal S, Ale JB, Sapkota YD. Profile of pediatric ocular trauma in mid western hilly region of Nepal. Nepal J Ophthalmol. 2012 Jan-Jun;4(1):134-7. doi: 10.3126/nepjoph.v4i1.5865. PMID: 22344011.
10. Agrawal R, Rao G, Naigaonkar R, Ou X, Desai S. Prognostic factors for vision outcome after surgical repair of open globe injuries. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2011 Nov-Dec;59(6):465-70. doi: 10.4103/0301-4738.86314. PMID: 22011491; PMCID: PMC3214417.
11. Patel PK, Sah SK, Adhikari PR, Karn RR. Prevalence of ocular morbidity among industrial workers of Eastern Nepal. IHOPE Journal of Ophthalmology. 2024 Jan 31;3(1):10-5. doi: 10.25259/IHOPEJO_25_2023.
12. Gurung HB, Kalpana Singh, Mohini Shrestha, Aleena Gauchan, Adita Dhoju, Sunil Thakali. Prevalence and Pattern of Ocular Trauma in a Secondary Eye Care Center in Nepal: A Descriptive Cross-sectional Study. JNMA J Nepal Med Assoc. 2024 May 31;62(274):353-357. doi: 10.31729/jnma.8599. PMID: 39356868; PMCID: PMC11185310.
13. Mayer CS, Reznicek L, Baur ID, Khoramnia R. Open Globe Injuries: Classifications and Prognostic Factors for Functional Outcome. Diagnostics (Basel). 2021 Oct 8;11(10):1851. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics11101851. PMID: 34679549; PMCID: PMC8534971.
14. Acar U, Tok OY, Acar DE, Burcu A, Ornek F. A new ocular trauma score in pediatric penetrating eye injuries. Eye (Lond). 2011 Mar;25(3):370-4. doi: 10.1038/eye.2010.211. Epub 2011 Jan 21. PMID: 21252953; PMCID: PMC3178309.
15. Pelletier J, Reagan K, McLeod S, Kronk N, Dickson K, Ohman K, Santos M. Epidemiology of ocular trauma in limited-resource settings: a narrative review. Front Med (Lausanne). 2025 Aug 25;12:1585527. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2025.1585527. PMID: 40927196; PMCID: PMC12415046.
16. Kyriakaki EDO, Detorakis ET, Bertsias AK, Tsakalis NG, Karageorgiou I, Chlouverakis G, Symvoulakis EK. Clinical and Social Features of Patients with Eye Injuries Admitted to a Tertiary Hospital: A Five-Year Retrospective Study from Crete, Greece. Healthcare (Basel). 2023 Mar 18;11(6):885. doi: 10.3390/healthcare11060885. PMID: 36981542; PMCID: PMC10048775.
17. Do?an E, Co?kun ?B, Güner Sönmezo?lu B, Alagöz G. Demographic, Etiological, and Clinical Characteristics of Eyelid Lacerations. Turk J Ophthalmol. 2024 Feb 22;54(1):17-22. doi: 10.4274/tjo.galenos.2023.05684. PMID: 38385316; PMCID: PMC10895165.
18. Aghadoost D. Ocular trauma: an overview. Arch Trauma Res. 2014 Jun 29;3(2):e21639. doi: 10.5812/atr.21639. PMID: 25147781; PMCID: PMC4139697.
19. Alem KD, Arega DD, Weldegiorgis ST, Agaje BG, Tigneh EG. Profile of ocular trauma in patients presenting to the department of ophthalmology at Hawassa University: Retrospective study. PLoS One. 2019 Mar 28;14(3):e0213893. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213893. PMID: 30921358; PMCID: PMC6438501.
20. Sii F, Barry RJ, Abbott J, Blanch RJ, MacEwen CJ, Shah P. The UK Paediatric Ocular Trauma Study 2 (POTS2): demographics and mechanisms of injuries. Clin Ophthalmol. 2018 Jan 9;12:105-111. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S155611. PMID: 29386884; PMCID: PMC5767095.
21. Shah A, Blackhall K, Ker K, Patel D. Educational interventions for the prevention of eye injuries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Oct 7;2009(4):CD006527. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006527.pub3. PMID: 19821372; PMCID: PMC7388744.
22. Philip SS, Hoskin AK. Children's protective eyewear: the challenges and the way forward. Med J Aust. 2014 Jul 21;201(2):87-8. doi: 10.5694/mja13.00132. PMID: 25045980.
23. Sii F, Barry RJ, Blanch RJ, Abbott J, MacEwen CJ, Shah P. The UK Paediatric Ocular Trauma Study 1 (POTS1): development of a global standardized protocol for prospective data collection in pediatric ocular trauma. Clin Ophthalmol. 2017 Feb 23;11:449-452. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S125160. PMID: 28260859; PMCID: PMC5328317.
24. Koo L, Kapadia MK, Singh RP, Sheridan R, Hatton MP. Gender differences in etiology and outcome of open globe injuries. J Trauma. 2005 Jul;59(1):175-8. doi: 10.1097/01.ta.0000173624.37438.d6. PMID: 16096559.
25. Rajendran VK, Gowth AM, Balasubramanian A, Kowsalya A, Mani I, Joseph S, Ravilla TD. Eye injury rates and community cost savings through vision centers: Evidence from southern India. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2025 Dec 1;73(12):1807-1812. doi: 10.4103/IJO.IJO_631_25. Epub 2025 Sep 19. PMID: 40971500; PMCID: PMC12707410.
26. Bu?an K, Matas A, Lovri? JM, Batisti? D, Pleština Borjan I, Puljak L, Bu?an I. Epidemiology of ocular trauma in children requiring hospital admission: a 16-year retrospective cohort study. J Glob Health. 2017 Jun;7(1):010415. doi: 10.7189/jogh.07.010415. PMID: 28607671; PMCID: PMC5460398.
27. Hoskin AK, Philip SS, Yardley AM, Mackey DA. Eye Injury Prevention for the Pediatric Population. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila). 2016 May;5(3):202-11. doi: 10.1097/APO.0000000000000193. PMID: 27183290.
28. Grieshaber MC, Stegmann R. Penetrating eye injuries in South African children: aetiology and visual outcome. Eye (Lond). 2006 Jul;20(7):789-95. doi: 10.1038/sj.eye.6702003. Epub 2005 Jul 1. PMID: 15999122.
29. Pfister T, Bohnak C, Patel S. Wood-Related Open-Globe Injuries. J Vitreoretin Dis. 2020 Sep 1;5(1):7-14. doi: 10.1177/2474126420946624. PMID: 37009584; PMCID: PMC9976041.
30. Haavisto AK, Sahraravand A, Puska P, Leivo T. Eye Injuries Caused by Wooden Projectiles in Finland. Wilderness Environ Med. 2022 Sep;33(3):284-289. doi: 10.1016/j.wem.2022.03.008. Epub 2022 May 14. PMID: 35577657.
31. Puodžiuvien? E, Jok?bauskien? G, Vieversyt? M, Asselineau K. A five-year retrospective study of the epidemiological characteristics and visual outcomes of pediatric ocular trauma. BMC Ophthalmol. 2018 Jan 18;18(1):10. doi: 10.1186/s12886-018-0676-7. PMID: 29347941; PMCID: PMC5774107.
32. Shaeri M, Moravveji A, Fazel MR, Rangraz Jeddi F. Status of ocular trauma in hospitalized patients in Kashan, 2011: As a sample of industrial city. Chin J Traumatol. 2016 Dec 1;19(6):326-329. doi: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2016.05.001. PMID: 28088935; PMCID: PMC5198933.
33. Stilma JS. Prevention of ocular firework injuries. Nepal J Ophthalmol. 2012 Jan-Jun;4(1):3-4. doi: 10.3126/nepjoph.v4i1.5842. PMID: 22343988.
34. Arya SK, Malhotra S, Dhir SP, Sood S. Ocular fireworks injuries. Clinical features and visual outcome. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2001 Sep;49(3):189-90. PMID: 15887729.
35. Chang IT, Prendes MA, Tarbet KJ, Amadi AJ, Chang SH, Shaftel SS. Ocular injuries from fireworks: the 11-year experience of a US level I trauma center. Eye (Lond). 2016 Oct;30(10):1324-1330. doi: 10.1038/eye.2016.104. Epub 2016 Jun 10. PMID: 27285323; PMCID: PMC5129850.
36. Mehrabi Bahar M, Asadi Khameneh E, Asadigandomani H, Razavi A, Tabatabaei SA, Mahdizad Z, Masoudi Samghabadi F. Animal and bird-related ocular trauma: a decade of experience from a tertiary referral eye hospital of Iran. BMC Ophthalmol. 2025 Jan 7;25(1):9. doi: 10.1186/s12886-024-03840-9. PMID: 39773443; PMCID: PMC11705781.
37. Yardley AM, Hoskin AK, Hanman K, Wan SL, Mackey DA. Animal-inflicted ocular and adnexal injuries in children: A systematic review. Surv Ophthalmol. 2015 Nov-Dec;60(6):536-46. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2015.05.003. Epub 2015 May 27. PMID: 26022273.
38. Abu-Ain MS, Al-Latayfeh MM, Shatnawi R, Khan MI. Epidemiology of Open Globe Injury in Children at a Tertiary Hospital in Jordan. Clin Ophthalmol. 2025 Jul 12;19:2271-2279. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S399325. PMID: 40677410; PMCID: PMC12267827.
39. Li X, Zarbin MA, Bhagat N. Pediatric open globe injury: A review of the literature. J Emerg Trauma Shock. 2015 Oct-Dec;8(4):216-23. doi: 10.4103/0974-2700.166663. PMID: 26604528; PMCID: PMC4626939.
40. Chen Q, Liang L, Shi Y, Lu F. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of open globe injuries in Southwest China. Front Med (Lausanne). 2024 Feb 7;11:1303683. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2024.1303683. PMID: 38384411; PMCID: PMC10879276.
41. Kyei S, Kwarteng MA, Asare FA, Jemitara M, Mtuwa CN. Ocular trauma among patients attending a tertiary teaching hospital in Zimbabwe. PLoS One. 2023 Oct 4;18(10):e0292392. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0292392. PMID: 37792744; PMCID: PMC10550172.
42. Patel PS, Uppuluri A, Zarbin MA, Bhagat N. Epidemiologic trends in pediatric ocular injury in the USA from 2010 to 2019. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2022 Apr;260(4):1387-1394. doi: 10.1007/s00417-021-05368-w. Epub 2021 Sep 18. PMID: 34536117.
43. Pimolrat W, Choovuthayakorn J, Watanachai N, Patikulsila D, Kunavisarut P, Chaikitmongkol V, Ittipunkul N. Predictive factors of open globe injury in patients requiring vitrectomy. Injury. 2014 Jan;45(1):212-6. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2013.06.003. Epub 2013 Jul 2. PMID: 23830208.
44. Scanzera AC, Dunbar G, Shah V, Cortina MS, Leiderman YI, Shorter E. Visual Rehabilitation With Contact Lenses Following Open Globe Trauma. Eye Contact Lens. 2021 May 1;47(5):288-291. doi: 10.1097/ICL.0000000000000756. PMID: 33181528; PMCID: PMC8272942.
45. Schmidt GW, Broman AT, Hindman HB, Grant MP. Vision survival after open globe injury predicted by classification and regression tree analysis. Ophthalmology. 2008 Jan;115(1):202-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.04.008. Epub 2007 Jun 27. PMID: 17588667.
46. Savar A, Andreoli MT, Kloek CE, Andreoli CM. Enucleation for open globe injury. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009 Apr;147(4):595-600.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2008.10.017. Epub 2009 Feb 1. PMID: 19181305.
47. Yu Wai Man C, Steel D. Visual outcome after open globe injury: a comparison of two prognostic models--the Ocular Trauma Score and the Classification and Regression Tree. Eye (Lond). 2010 Jan;24(1):84-9. doi: 10.1038/eye.2009.16. Epub 2009 Feb 20. PMID: 19229267.
48. Shukla B, Agrawal R, Shukla D, Seen S. Systematic analysis of ocular trauma by a new proposed ocular trauma classification. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2017 Aug;65(8):719-722. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_241_17. PMID: 28820158; PMCID: PMC5598183.
49. Mahan M, Purt B. Ocular Trauma Prevention Strategies and Patient Counseling. 2024 Feb 12. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 35593844.
50. Hoskin AK, Watson SL. Ocular trauma and prevention measures. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2020 Sep;48(7):875-876. doi: 10.1111/ceo.13850. PMID: 33044046.
51. Li C, Fu Y, Liu S, Yu H, Yang X, Zhang M, Liu L. The global incidence and disability of eye injury: an analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. EClinicalMedicine. 2023 Aug 9;62:102134. doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.102134. PMID: 37599904; PMCID: PMC10432781.
2. Kaçer EÖ, Kaçer ?. Ocular trauma in the pediatric age group: a systematic review. Egyptian Pediatric Association Gazette. 2022 Dec 5;70(1):28. doi:10.1186/s43054-022-00125-y.
3. GBD 2019 Blindness and Vision Impairment Collaborators; Vision Loss Expert Group of the Global Burden of Disease Study. Trends in prevalence of blindness and distance and near vision impairment over 30 years: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet Glob Health. 2021 Feb;9(2):e130-e143. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30425-3. Epub 2020 Dec 1. PMID: 33275950; PMCID: PMC7820390.
4. Qayum S, Anjum R, Rather S. Epidemiological profile of pediatric ocular trauma in a tertiary hospital of northern India. Chin J Traumatol. 2018 Apr;21(2):100-103. doi: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2017.11.005. Epub 2018 Mar 3. Erratum in: Chin J Traumatol. 2025 Sep;28(5):390. doi: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2020.12.006. PMID: 29605433; PMCID: PMC5911735.
5. GBD 2019 Blindness and Vision Impairment Collaborators; Vision Loss Expert Group of the Global Burden of Disease Study. Causes of blindness and vision impairment in 2020 and trends over 30 years, and prevalence of avoidable blindness in relation to VISION 2020: the Right to Sight: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet Glob Health. 2021 Feb;9(2):e144-e160. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30489-7. Epub 2020 Dec 1. Erratum in: Lancet Glob Health. 2021 Apr;9(4):e408. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00050-4. PMID: 33275949; PMCID: PMC7820391.
6. Saxena R, Sinha R, Purohit A, Dada T, Vajpayee RB, Azad RV. Pattern of pediatric ocular trauma in India. Indian J Pediatr. 2002 Oct;69(10):863-7. doi: 10.1007/BF02723708. PMID: 12450295.
7. Parija S, Chakraborty K, Ravikumar SR, Dhall S. A study on the clinical profile and visual outcome of pediatric ocular trauma in Eastern India. Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2023 Jun 26;37(2):111–119. doi: 10.4103/sjopt.sjopt_61_22. PMID: 37492202; PMCID: PMC10365246.
8. Madan AH, Joshi RS, Wadekar PD. Ocular Trauma in Pediatric Age Group at a Tertiary Eye Care Center in Central Maharashtra, India. Clin Ophthalmol. 2020 Apr 1;14:1003-1009. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S244679. PMID: 32280195; PMCID: PMC7132001.
9. Dulal S, Ale JB, Sapkota YD. Profile of pediatric ocular trauma in mid western hilly region of Nepal. Nepal J Ophthalmol. 2012 Jan-Jun;4(1):134-7. doi: 10.3126/nepjoph.v4i1.5865. PMID: 22344011.
10. Agrawal R, Rao G, Naigaonkar R, Ou X, Desai S. Prognostic factors for vision outcome after surgical repair of open globe injuries. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2011 Nov-Dec;59(6):465-70. doi: 10.4103/0301-4738.86314. PMID: 22011491; PMCID: PMC3214417.
11. Patel PK, Sah SK, Adhikari PR, Karn RR. Prevalence of ocular morbidity among industrial workers of Eastern Nepal. IHOPE Journal of Ophthalmology. 2024 Jan 31;3(1):10-5. doi: 10.25259/IHOPEJO_25_2023.
12. Gurung HB, Kalpana Singh, Mohini Shrestha, Aleena Gauchan, Adita Dhoju, Sunil Thakali. Prevalence and Pattern of Ocular Trauma in a Secondary Eye Care Center in Nepal: A Descriptive Cross-sectional Study. JNMA J Nepal Med Assoc. 2024 May 31;62(274):353-357. doi: 10.31729/jnma.8599. PMID: 39356868; PMCID: PMC11185310.
13. Mayer CS, Reznicek L, Baur ID, Khoramnia R. Open Globe Injuries: Classifications and Prognostic Factors for Functional Outcome. Diagnostics (Basel). 2021 Oct 8;11(10):1851. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics11101851. PMID: 34679549; PMCID: PMC8534971.
14. Acar U, Tok OY, Acar DE, Burcu A, Ornek F. A new ocular trauma score in pediatric penetrating eye injuries. Eye (Lond). 2011 Mar;25(3):370-4. doi: 10.1038/eye.2010.211. Epub 2011 Jan 21. PMID: 21252953; PMCID: PMC3178309.
15. Pelletier J, Reagan K, McLeod S, Kronk N, Dickson K, Ohman K, Santos M. Epidemiology of ocular trauma in limited-resource settings: a narrative review. Front Med (Lausanne). 2025 Aug 25;12:1585527. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2025.1585527. PMID: 40927196; PMCID: PMC12415046.
16. Kyriakaki EDO, Detorakis ET, Bertsias AK, Tsakalis NG, Karageorgiou I, Chlouverakis G, Symvoulakis EK. Clinical and Social Features of Patients with Eye Injuries Admitted to a Tertiary Hospital: A Five-Year Retrospective Study from Crete, Greece. Healthcare (Basel). 2023 Mar 18;11(6):885. doi: 10.3390/healthcare11060885. PMID: 36981542; PMCID: PMC10048775.
17. Do?an E, Co?kun ?B, Güner Sönmezo?lu B, Alagöz G. Demographic, Etiological, and Clinical Characteristics of Eyelid Lacerations. Turk J Ophthalmol. 2024 Feb 22;54(1):17-22. doi: 10.4274/tjo.galenos.2023.05684. PMID: 38385316; PMCID: PMC10895165.
18. Aghadoost D. Ocular trauma: an overview. Arch Trauma Res. 2014 Jun 29;3(2):e21639. doi: 10.5812/atr.21639. PMID: 25147781; PMCID: PMC4139697.
19. Alem KD, Arega DD, Weldegiorgis ST, Agaje BG, Tigneh EG. Profile of ocular trauma in patients presenting to the department of ophthalmology at Hawassa University: Retrospective study. PLoS One. 2019 Mar 28;14(3):e0213893. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213893. PMID: 30921358; PMCID: PMC6438501.
20. Sii F, Barry RJ, Abbott J, Blanch RJ, MacEwen CJ, Shah P. The UK Paediatric Ocular Trauma Study 2 (POTS2): demographics and mechanisms of injuries. Clin Ophthalmol. 2018 Jan 9;12:105-111. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S155611. PMID: 29386884; PMCID: PMC5767095.
21. Shah A, Blackhall K, Ker K, Patel D. Educational interventions for the prevention of eye injuries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Oct 7;2009(4):CD006527. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006527.pub3. PMID: 19821372; PMCID: PMC7388744.
22. Philip SS, Hoskin AK. Children's protective eyewear: the challenges and the way forward. Med J Aust. 2014 Jul 21;201(2):87-8. doi: 10.5694/mja13.00132. PMID: 25045980.
23. Sii F, Barry RJ, Blanch RJ, Abbott J, MacEwen CJ, Shah P. The UK Paediatric Ocular Trauma Study 1 (POTS1): development of a global standardized protocol for prospective data collection in pediatric ocular trauma. Clin Ophthalmol. 2017 Feb 23;11:449-452. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S125160. PMID: 28260859; PMCID: PMC5328317.
24. Koo L, Kapadia MK, Singh RP, Sheridan R, Hatton MP. Gender differences in etiology and outcome of open globe injuries. J Trauma. 2005 Jul;59(1):175-8. doi: 10.1097/01.ta.0000173624.37438.d6. PMID: 16096559.
25. Rajendran VK, Gowth AM, Balasubramanian A, Kowsalya A, Mani I, Joseph S, Ravilla TD. Eye injury rates and community cost savings through vision centers: Evidence from southern India. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2025 Dec 1;73(12):1807-1812. doi: 10.4103/IJO.IJO_631_25. Epub 2025 Sep 19. PMID: 40971500; PMCID: PMC12707410.
26. Bu?an K, Matas A, Lovri? JM, Batisti? D, Pleština Borjan I, Puljak L, Bu?an I. Epidemiology of ocular trauma in children requiring hospital admission: a 16-year retrospective cohort study. J Glob Health. 2017 Jun;7(1):010415. doi: 10.7189/jogh.07.010415. PMID: 28607671; PMCID: PMC5460398.
27. Hoskin AK, Philip SS, Yardley AM, Mackey DA. Eye Injury Prevention for the Pediatric Population. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila). 2016 May;5(3):202-11. doi: 10.1097/APO.0000000000000193. PMID: 27183290.
28. Grieshaber MC, Stegmann R. Penetrating eye injuries in South African children: aetiology and visual outcome. Eye (Lond). 2006 Jul;20(7):789-95. doi: 10.1038/sj.eye.6702003. Epub 2005 Jul 1. PMID: 15999122.
29. Pfister T, Bohnak C, Patel S. Wood-Related Open-Globe Injuries. J Vitreoretin Dis. 2020 Sep 1;5(1):7-14. doi: 10.1177/2474126420946624. PMID: 37009584; PMCID: PMC9976041.
30. Haavisto AK, Sahraravand A, Puska P, Leivo T. Eye Injuries Caused by Wooden Projectiles in Finland. Wilderness Environ Med. 2022 Sep;33(3):284-289. doi: 10.1016/j.wem.2022.03.008. Epub 2022 May 14. PMID: 35577657.
31. Puodžiuvien? E, Jok?bauskien? G, Vieversyt? M, Asselineau K. A five-year retrospective study of the epidemiological characteristics and visual outcomes of pediatric ocular trauma. BMC Ophthalmol. 2018 Jan 18;18(1):10. doi: 10.1186/s12886-018-0676-7. PMID: 29347941; PMCID: PMC5774107.
32. Shaeri M, Moravveji A, Fazel MR, Rangraz Jeddi F. Status of ocular trauma in hospitalized patients in Kashan, 2011: As a sample of industrial city. Chin J Traumatol. 2016 Dec 1;19(6):326-329. doi: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2016.05.001. PMID: 28088935; PMCID: PMC5198933.
33. Stilma JS. Prevention of ocular firework injuries. Nepal J Ophthalmol. 2012 Jan-Jun;4(1):3-4. doi: 10.3126/nepjoph.v4i1.5842. PMID: 22343988.
34. Arya SK, Malhotra S, Dhir SP, Sood S. Ocular fireworks injuries. Clinical features and visual outcome. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2001 Sep;49(3):189-90. PMID: 15887729.
35. Chang IT, Prendes MA, Tarbet KJ, Amadi AJ, Chang SH, Shaftel SS. Ocular injuries from fireworks: the 11-year experience of a US level I trauma center. Eye (Lond). 2016 Oct;30(10):1324-1330. doi: 10.1038/eye.2016.104. Epub 2016 Jun 10. PMID: 27285323; PMCID: PMC5129850.
36. Mehrabi Bahar M, Asadi Khameneh E, Asadigandomani H, Razavi A, Tabatabaei SA, Mahdizad Z, Masoudi Samghabadi F. Animal and bird-related ocular trauma: a decade of experience from a tertiary referral eye hospital of Iran. BMC Ophthalmol. 2025 Jan 7;25(1):9. doi: 10.1186/s12886-024-03840-9. PMID: 39773443; PMCID: PMC11705781.
37. Yardley AM, Hoskin AK, Hanman K, Wan SL, Mackey DA. Animal-inflicted ocular and adnexal injuries in children: A systematic review. Surv Ophthalmol. 2015 Nov-Dec;60(6):536-46. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2015.05.003. Epub 2015 May 27. PMID: 26022273.
38. Abu-Ain MS, Al-Latayfeh MM, Shatnawi R, Khan MI. Epidemiology of Open Globe Injury in Children at a Tertiary Hospital in Jordan. Clin Ophthalmol. 2025 Jul 12;19:2271-2279. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S399325. PMID: 40677410; PMCID: PMC12267827.
39. Li X, Zarbin MA, Bhagat N. Pediatric open globe injury: A review of the literature. J Emerg Trauma Shock. 2015 Oct-Dec;8(4):216-23. doi: 10.4103/0974-2700.166663. PMID: 26604528; PMCID: PMC4626939.
40. Chen Q, Liang L, Shi Y, Lu F. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of open globe injuries in Southwest China. Front Med (Lausanne). 2024 Feb 7;11:1303683. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2024.1303683. PMID: 38384411; PMCID: PMC10879276.
41. Kyei S, Kwarteng MA, Asare FA, Jemitara M, Mtuwa CN. Ocular trauma among patients attending a tertiary teaching hospital in Zimbabwe. PLoS One. 2023 Oct 4;18(10):e0292392. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0292392. PMID: 37792744; PMCID: PMC10550172.
42. Patel PS, Uppuluri A, Zarbin MA, Bhagat N. Epidemiologic trends in pediatric ocular injury in the USA from 2010 to 2019. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2022 Apr;260(4):1387-1394. doi: 10.1007/s00417-021-05368-w. Epub 2021 Sep 18. PMID: 34536117.
43. Pimolrat W, Choovuthayakorn J, Watanachai N, Patikulsila D, Kunavisarut P, Chaikitmongkol V, Ittipunkul N. Predictive factors of open globe injury in patients requiring vitrectomy. Injury. 2014 Jan;45(1):212-6. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2013.06.003. Epub 2013 Jul 2. PMID: 23830208.
44. Scanzera AC, Dunbar G, Shah V, Cortina MS, Leiderman YI, Shorter E. Visual Rehabilitation With Contact Lenses Following Open Globe Trauma. Eye Contact Lens. 2021 May 1;47(5):288-291. doi: 10.1097/ICL.0000000000000756. PMID: 33181528; PMCID: PMC8272942.
45. Schmidt GW, Broman AT, Hindman HB, Grant MP. Vision survival after open globe injury predicted by classification and regression tree analysis. Ophthalmology. 2008 Jan;115(1):202-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.04.008. Epub 2007 Jun 27. PMID: 17588667.
46. Savar A, Andreoli MT, Kloek CE, Andreoli CM. Enucleation for open globe injury. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009 Apr;147(4):595-600.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2008.10.017. Epub 2009 Feb 1. PMID: 19181305.
47. Yu Wai Man C, Steel D. Visual outcome after open globe injury: a comparison of two prognostic models--the Ocular Trauma Score and the Classification and Regression Tree. Eye (Lond). 2010 Jan;24(1):84-9. doi: 10.1038/eye.2009.16. Epub 2009 Feb 20. PMID: 19229267.
48. Shukla B, Agrawal R, Shukla D, Seen S. Systematic analysis of ocular trauma by a new proposed ocular trauma classification. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2017 Aug;65(8):719-722. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_241_17. PMID: 28820158; PMCID: PMC5598183.
49. Mahan M, Purt B. Ocular Trauma Prevention Strategies and Patient Counseling. 2024 Feb 12. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 35593844.
50. Hoskin AK, Watson SL. Ocular trauma and prevention measures. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2020 Sep;48(7):875-876. doi: 10.1111/ceo.13850. PMID: 33044046.
51. Li C, Fu Y, Liu S, Yu H, Yang X, Zhang M, Liu L. The global incidence and disability of eye injury: an analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. EClinicalMedicine. 2023 Aug 9;62:102134. doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.102134. PMID: 37599904; PMCID: PMC10432781.
- Abstract Viewed: 0 times
- Full Text PDF Downloaded: 0 times